No

No

Introduction
While there was no mention of African-Americans in the enabling legislation for the establishment of the Illinois Industrial University (now University of Illinois), as Dr. Winton Solberg stated in his history of the University, "in light of the Emancipation Proclamation and the Thirteenth Amendment, however, the University would be open to men of all races." (p. 81) Jonathan A. Rogan was the first African-American to enroll, attending for one year, 1887-88. George W. Riley was a special student in Art and Design from 1894 to 1897. The first African-American to graduate was William Walter Smith with an A.B. in Literature and Arts in 1900 and a B.S. in Civil Engineering in 1907. In 1906, Maudelle Tanner Brown Bausfield became the first African-American woman graduate. Hilda H. Lawson was the first African-American woman to receive a Ph.D. (English, 1939).

Little is known about John J. Bryd who served as a member of the Board of Trustees from 1873 to 1879. The first African-American employee of the University was Mr. L. H. Walden, a maintenance employee for the Drill Hall and Gymnasium. Albert Lee became the second African-American employee of the University in 1895. His first position was as a messenger in the President's office followed by a position as Chief Clerk in that same office. During his tenure, Lee became the "defacto dean of African-American students" for the University, providing them with scholastic, social, and moral guidance and representing their interests to the administration.

There is much research still to be done on the African-American experience in higher education. This guide is intended as a starting point for uncovering sources for historical research on African-Americans at the University of Illinois. Hopefully, it will make the search easier and open new avenues for exploration. The terminology for African-Americans used in the guide (i.e. colored, negro, black, Afro-American, African-American) reflect the term used when the records described were created. Since records are added to the Archives on a regular basis, this guide will always be a work-in-progress like all such publications.



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Bibliography
The following publications contain information on African-American history at Illinois.

Books:
Ebert, Roger, ed. An Illini Century: One Hundred Years of Campus Life. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1967. (See pages 147-154 for a discussion of civil rights and discrimination as written about in the Daily Illini.)
Solberg, Winton U. The University of Illinois, 1867-1894: An Intellectual and Cultural History. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1968.
Solberg, Winton U. The University of Illinois, 1894-1904: The Shaping of the University. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000. (A longer, manuscript draft version of this book is available in Box 15 of the Winton Solberg Papers in the University Archives.)
Williamson, Joy Ann. Black Power on Campus: The University of Illinois, 1965-75: An Intellectual and Cultural History. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003.
Dissertations/Theses:
Cobb-Roberts, Deirdre Lynn. "Race and Higher Education at the University of Illinois, 1945 to 1955." See Dissertation Abstracts Index 1999 59(8): 2889-A. DA9904419
Franke, Carrie. "Injustice Sheltered: Race Relations at the University of Illinois and Champaign-Urbana, 1945-1962." See Dissertations Abstract Index 1991 52(3): 817-A. DA9114239.
Reed, David Brian. "The History of the Negro Athlete at the University of Illinois (1904-1969)." Urbana, IL: [sn], 1972. MA Thesis. Copy in University Archives Book Collection and Main Stacks Call No. 796.069 R25H
Williamson, Joy Ann. "'We Hope for Nothing; We Demand Everything': Black Students at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1965-1975." See Dissertation Abstracts Index 1999 59 (9): 3379-A. DA9904622
Journal Articles:
Cobb, Deirdre. "Segregated Students at the University of Illinois, 1945 to 1955." Journal of the Midwest History of Education Society 1997 24: 46-51.
Cobb-Roberts, Deirdre. "Interracial Cooperatives at the University of Illinois, 1940-1960." American Educational History Journal 2002 29: 35-42.
Feinberg, Walter and Tyack, David. "Black People, Not Student Personnel: The "Disadvantaged" in Teacher Education." Teachers College Record 1969 71(2): 225-235. (Describes an experimental program in teacher education for black students at the University of Illinois.)
Mack, Faite R-P. "Educational Opportunity Program Graduates Compared to Educational Opportunity Program Non-Graduates." Journal of Negro Education 1974 43 (1): 39-46. (Studies 502 freshman who entered the University of Illinois Special Education Opportunities Program in 1968.)
Merrick, Jeffries. "Project "500": An Excellent Plan Poorly Executed." FOCUS/Midwest 1969 7(45): 8-13.
Spivey, Donald and Jones, Thomas A. "Intercollegiate Athletic Servitude: A Case Study of the Black Illini Student-Athletes, 1931-1967" Social Science Quarterly 1975 55(4): 939-947.
Williamson, Joy Ann. "Who is "Black" at the University of Illinois, 1965-1975." Journal of the Midwest History of Education Society 1997 24: 52-56.
Williamson, Joy Ann. "Affirmative Action at University of Illinois: The 1968 Special Educational Opportunities Program." Journal of the Midwest History of Education Society 1998 25(1): 49-54.
Williamson, Joy Ann. "An Oral History of Black Students at the University of Illinois, 1965-1975." Journal of the Midwest History of Education Society 1998 25 (1): 94-100.


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University History Reference Files
The University Archives maintains reference files on subjects related to the history of the University. These files contain newspaper and magazine clippings, brochures, information sheets, and other documents. Information on African-American subjects can be found under the following headings.

Black Athletes
Black Fraternities and Sororities
Blacks and Minorities
Black Faculty
Equal Opportunity in Education and Employment (Title IX)
Lee, Albert


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Descriptions of Sources
In accordance with archival principles and practices, materials in the University of Illinois Archives are arranged by record group, record subgroup, and record series, reflecting the origin of the records. The citations in this list are intended as starting points. Under each heading, a description of materials concerning African-American topics is given. In most cases, these comprize only a small percentage of the overall material in the record series. For that reason, each heading is linked to the the corresponding series description in our holdings database. Follow the links to the database and finding aids to locate more information, including specific boxes and folders in which items relating to African-American resrouces are held.

Sports Interviews, 1967. Record Series 0/1/808.
Includes a filmed interview with former University of Illinois football player Claude "Buddy" Young concerning football, effects of athletic competition on race relations, and discrimination in Urbana-Champaign.
The Board of Trustees Reports, 1867-. Record Series 1/1/802.
Includes references in the years listed below for the following subjects; consult Board of Trustees Indexes in the back of each volume for pages:
1946-48: Responsibility of the University for housing racial minorities
1952-54: Racial discrimination in Champaign-Urbana barbershops
1960-62: Policies governing student housing and membership in student organizations; Student Affairs Subcommittee on Housing Discrimination recommendations; University of Illinois and Discrimination: Actions and Policies;
1964-66: Non-discriminatory housing policy amendment; Authorization for collecting racial information from staff and students; university policy of non-discrimination in student organization membership; NAACP resolution about alleges discriminatory practices against negro athletes at UI
1968-70: Upward Bound Program; Black Student Association, Black Faculty and Staff Association, Concerned Citizen Committee of Champaign, and Students Against Racism presentation; affirmative action and equal opportunity employment in University construction; additional resources available in support of equal opportunity programs; tuition waiver for disadvantaged student and equal opportunity grants
1970-72: Disadvantaged students
1972-74: Black Studies Program (Chicago Circle); Coalition of Afrikan People presentation
1974-76: Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity; grievance guidelines for complaints of discrimination; employment of minority students
1976-78: Urban League of Champaign County and African Students Organization presentations concerning South African Investments; Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Committee; affirmative action data base; grievance procedures for complaint of discrimination amendment;
1978-80: Report on identification, recruitment, and retention of minority students (Medical Center);Affirmative Action procedures for selection of University president; resolution reaffirming University's nondiscrimination policy in light of Bakke case; Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Committee
1980-82: Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Committee
1982-84: Revision of major in Black Studies (Chicago);
Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Committee; revision of University's Affirmative Action plan
1984-86: President Ikenberry's testimony at hearing of Senate Subcommittee on Minority Concerns in Higher Education; minority faculty and student recruitment; Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Committee; policy prohibiting conduct of University business in private clubs having discriminatory policies on membership or attendance; University affirmative action and equal opportunity programs report
1986-88: Campuses' readiness to deal with racial incidents; University's implementation of Illinois Minority and Female Business Act; Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Committee
1988-90: Minority recruitment; Afro-American Studies minor established; affirmative action
1990-92: Minority recruitment; racial incidents; minority student participation in mathematics, science, and engineering; African-American Studies and Research Program; affirmative action.
President John M. Gregory Papers, 1839-98. Record Series 2/1/1.
Includes manuscript of a speech by Gregory on "negro education" (1882).
President Edmund J. James General Correspondence, 1904-19. Record Series 2/5/3.
Includes correspondence and other documents concerning the University of Illinois exhibit at the National Half-Century Anniversary Exposition of Negro Freedom held in Chicago in August 1915.
Albert Lee Papers, 1912-28. Record Series 2/6/21.
Lee's papers as Chief Clerk of the President's Office (1920-42) includes correspondence, programs, notes, and memoranda relating to admission, housing, and placement of black students; and information on Alpha Phi Alpha (1922-28), Kappa Alpha Psi (1922-28), the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (1923-24), and Lee's involvement with the Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church.
President Arthur H. Daniels General Correspondence, 1933-34. Record Series 2/8/1.
Includes lists of "colored students" (1933-34).
President Arthur C. Willard General Correspondence, 1934-46 Record Series 2/9/1.
Includes "Negro Student at the University of Illinois: An Outline of Their Enrollment, Graduates, Activities, History, and Living Conditions" (1934-45); distribution of National Youth Administration workers by race (1936-37); memoranda concerning closing of Campus Co-op Restaurant and need for "a decent place for Negro students to eat"; list of "colored students who applied for National Your Administration" (1937); "Facts about Kappa Alpha Psi" (1937); list of negro graduate degree recipients (1931-32); list of "colored students" (1931-37); list of negro degree recipients (1938); and "Negro Students: Location, History, and Administration" (1939-40).
Negro Matriculants List, 1887-1937. Record Series 2/9/16.
Includes a card file and lists of black matriculants at the University of Illinois, 1887-1937, compiled by Albert Lee, Chief Clerk in the President's Office for the Alumni Association. Also includes partial lists of honors, awards, and degrees earned by black students (1929-31), lists of black students in fraternities, sororities, and independent houses (1931-37), and memoranda relating to compilation of lists and correspondence with William E.B. Dubois.
President George D. Stoddard General Correspondence, 1946-53. Record Series 2/10/1.
Includes information on discrimination in college admissions (1951-52) and discrimination in Illini Union concerning segregated employee restrooms and lockers.
President David D. Henry General Correspondence, 1955-69. Record Series 2/12/1.
Includes correspondence and information on discrimination.
President John E. Corbally Papers, 1971-79. Record Series 2/13/1.
Includes correspondence and other material concerning Ford Foundation Fellowships for Black Americans .
Committee on Student Affairs Minutes, 1938-72. Record Series 4/2/21.
Includes references to Alpha Phi Alpha .
Housing Review Committee File, 1962-71. Record Series 4/6/17.
Includes Affirmative Action Policy Statements.
Committee on Human Relations and Equal Opportunity File, 1964-85. Record Series 4/6/819.
Includes committee reports and recommendations on "ways and means of realizing the University's goal of equal opportunity in all its undertakings -- teaching, research, service, and their supporting activities."
Provost's Office Subject File, 1932-55. Record Series 5/1/1.
Includes information on racial minorities.
Vice-President for Academic Affairs Correspondence, 1965-74. Record Series 5/1/2.
Includes information on Equal Opportunity and Affirmative Action (1968-74), equal opportunity for blacks (1969-71), and racial-ethnic data (1970-71).
Vice-President for Academic Affairs Subject File, 1965-82. Record Series 5/1/3.
Includes information on Affirmative Action.
Committee on Institutional Cooperation Subject File, 1958-70. Record Series 5/1/15.
Includes information on minority group programs (1968-70).
Minority Student Affairs Office Issuances and Announcements, 1978-83. Record Series 7/1/821.
Includes "Increasing Minority Participation in Graduate Education" (1978-79, 1981), "Graduate Opportunities for Minority Students," "The Minority Student Affairs Office," and Directory of Academic Department Heads and Placement Directors at Colleges and Universities in the U.S. Having Substantial Minority Student Enrollment (1973).
Allerton House Conference Studies, 1957-58. Record Series 10/2/810.
Includes reports regarding Amerian American students.
Archibald W. Anderson Papers, 1928-65. Record Series 10/6/21.
Includes correspondence on "Negro Education Issue" (1960), Negro Education in America Index (1962), and Negro Yearbooks (1951-62). Anderson was author of Education of the Negro in American Democracy (1960).
Law Monitoring Committee Records, 1970. Record Series 14/2/70.
Includes information on an alleged racist murder by Champaign police. Law student and faculty formed the Law Monitoring Committee to advise students of their legal rights, monitor demonstrations, and gather information for later use by arrested students.
AALS Headquarters Subject File, 1940-88 Record Series 14/80/105.
Includes information on minorities in law.
AALS Headquarters Office Committees File, 1951-89. Record Series 14/80/110.
Includes information on minority groups and racial discrimination in law schools.
AALS Educational and Institutional Organization File, 1953-90. Record Series 14/80/810.
Includes information on minority advancement.
Liberal Arts & Sciences Departmental Subject File, 1913-72. Record Series 15/1/1.
Includes references to National League of Urban Conditions Among Negroes fellowships (1916-17), Human Relations and Equal Opportunity Conference (1964-65), Affirmative Action Program (1968), Afro-American Culture Lecture Series (1969-71), and Afro-American Program (1972-76).
Liberal Arts & Sciences President's Office Correspondence, 1921-31, 1946-64, 1966-67. Record Series 15/1/9
Correspondence of Liberal Arts & Sciences deans with University presidents and presidential assistants includes references to negroes (1962-63), negro employment (1963-64), and negro studies workshop (1961-62).
Robert W. Rogers Papers, 1960-68, 1981. Record Series 15/1/21.
Includes references to Special Educational Opportunities Program (1969-71).
William M. Plater Papers, 1968-73. Record Series 15/1/22.
Includes information on Afro-American Lecture Series (1970-77) and James Baldwin talk.
Liberal Arts & Sciences Conference and Committee File, 1945-70. Record Series 15/1/34.
Includes information on affirmative action and equal opportunity (1970-80).
Liberal Arts & Sciences Associate & Assistant Deans Subject File, 1948-81. Record Series 15/1/35
Includes information on affirmative action (1968-70), Culturally Disadvantaged Students Program (1966-68), Afro-American Conference at Western Illinois University (1970), Afro-American Culture Lecture Program (1970-71), Special Educational Opportunities Program (1968-70), and Program 500 (1968-69).
Liberal Arts & Sciences Dean's Office Subject File, 1968-80. Record Series 15/1/36.
Includes information on Afro-American survey (1968-70) and Title IX requirements (1975-77).
William Noyes Papers, 1870-1942. Record Series 15/5/21.
Includes correspondence on civil rights and domestic problems with Committee on Democracy and Intellectual Freedom (1941).
NCTE Racism and Bias Task Force File, 1968-80. Record Series 15/7/750.
Includes correspondence; agendas and minutes of meetings; nominating ballots and invitations for membership; proposed project on selection of culturally balanced tests (1970); official Council position paper on "Criteria for Teaching Materials in Reading and Literature" (1970); questionnaires in response to Council publication Searching for America (1972); agenda for meeting between publishers' representatives and minority groups to discuss hiring and editorial policies; directory of minority publishers (1972-73); annotated bibliography of minority literature (1972); and copies of books, pamphlets, bibliographies, and curriculum guides on literature by or about Afro-Americans (1964-75).
The Green Caldron, 1931-70. Record Series 15/7/812.
Student literary publication containing samples of writing from Freshman Rhetoric classes includes "The University of Illinois and Its Negroes" by Jean Knapp, April 1946.
Thomas A. Krueger Papers, 1957-86. Record Series 15/13/42.
Includes Negro History Bulletin (August-September 1975) and the following student papers: "W.E.B. DuBois: A Philosophy of Race" (by James D. Anderson, 1970); "Farm Tenancy and Peonage Among Blacks in the Upper South, 1877-1900" (by Sandrea T. Bates, 1972); "the Southern Effort to Outlaw the NAACP" (by Kent Hull, 1972); "The New Deal Era and Blacks" (dissertation by John Kirby, 1972); "Black Legislative Politics in Illinois" (dissertation by Lee); "The Black Illini: Voluntary Athletic Servitude at a Major White University, 1931-1971" (by Donald Spivey and Thomas A. Jones, 1972). Krueger (1936-86) was professor of history, 1966-86.
Harry M. Tiebout Papers, 1941-82. Record Series 15/16/21.
Includes correspondence, notes, and other documentation from Tiebout's participation in the Student-Community Interracial Committee (1945-51), Student-Community Human Relations Council (1951-55), National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (Urbana-Champaign branch, 1955-59, and University chapter, 1955-56, 1958-62), and other civil rights organizations regarding discrimination in advertising, barbershops, employment, fraternities and sororities, housing, Illini Union, McKinley Hospital, recreational facilities, student organizations, restaurants, and theaters. Tiebout (1921-83) was professor of philosophy, 1951-83.
Illinois Studies of the Economically Disadvantaged, 1972-73. Record Series 15/19/823.
Includes studies of cultural assimilators for interaction with the economically disadvantaged (1972) and white people (1973) carried out by Harry C. Triandis, principal investigator, under Department of Health, Education, and Welfare grant.
Afro-American Studies and Research Program Subject File, 1980-84. Record Series 15/42/5.
Includes published materials on art exhibits (1982-); bibliographies (1981-82); Black Studies Planning Conference (1981); CIC Summer Institute on Social Change (1981); Black Studies Program clippings (1981-82); course offerings (1977-); films (1980-83); grant applications (1980-81); lectures (1971, 1977, 1980, 1982-83), NIMH report on Center for Minority Group Mental Health Programs (1981); conferences and publications of the Illinois Council for Black Studies (1980-82) and the National Council for Black Studies (1982); program brochures (1981), and publications (1981-84).
Afro-American Research Newsletters, 1977-. Record Series 15/42/805.
Includes Afro-Brief (1977), Afro-Notes (1983-), and Afro Scholar Newsletter (1980-), containing reports of programs, conferences, faculty activities, course offerings, and lectures.
Afro Scholars Working Papers, 1980-. Record Series 15/42/810.
Includes faculty writings on literary, historical, and sociological topics relating to black studies.
Urbana-Champaign Black Community Archival Survey, 1984-. Record Series 18/1/57.
A paper, written by Evelyn E. Brown for Library and Information Science 451, describing the problems associated with gathering data on documenting resources of the black community, and includes notes on files held by institutions, organizations, and individuals in the black community of Champaign-Urbana.
Library Research Center Research Reports, 1960- Record Series 18/2/805.
Includes a research report on Urbana-Champaign Black community resources.
Chancellor's Subject File, 1967-80. Record Series 24/1/1.
Includes racial and ethnic data; Human Relations and Equal Opportunity committee material including census of black families in Urbana-Champaign and information on training program, housing, Citizen Committee, and discrimination; black student demands; Black Student Association and Project 500; Afro-American Studies Commission; and Affirmative Action.
Chancellor's Office Committee File, 1960-70. Record Series 24/1/8.
Includes Human Relations and Equal Opportunity Committee material (1965-68).
Ombudsman's Subject File, 1960-80. Record Series 24/1/11.
Includes information on Affirmative Action (1970-77) and the Panel on Race Relations (1970).
Vice-Chancellor for Academic Affairs Subject File, 1966-72. Record Series 24/1/35.
Includes Affirmative Action memoranda about black employment on campus and job training (1968); proposals about lack of black students, black faculty, and black non-academic employment (1967-68); University and community race relations (1967-68); statements about discrimination in hiring (1964-68); Human Relations and Equal Opportunity Committee material (1965-69) including correspondence and reports on University attempts to increase minority employment; Employment Committee (1967-68); and Committee on Racial Justice (1968).
Affirmative Action Issues, 1968- . Record Series 24/9/803.
Issuances of the Office of Academic and Nonacademic Affirmative Action and the Chancellor's Affirmative Action Office, including a memo to deans, directors, and department heads (May 1968), a census of black families in Champaign Urbana (December 1968), a talk by James Ransom (December 1970), and an academic affirmative action brochure (1976).
Admissions and Records Administrative Correspondence, 1956-74. Record Series 25/1/1.
Includes information on disadvantaged students (1964) and the Special Educational Opportunities Program (1969-70)
Special Educational Opportunities File, 1968-70. Record Series 25/2/17.
Special Educational Opportunities Program (SEOP) files of Robert Corcoran, Assistant Director for Undergraduate Admissions, including correspondence with Charles Warwick, Clarence Shelley, Robert L. Johnson, Joseph Smith, Margaret Ismaila, and others; student lists; forms; notifications; and procedures. SEOP identified, admitted, and provided academic and financial assistance to disadvantaged student who had "reasonable chance of success."
Enrollment Tables, 1933-. Record Series 25/3/810.
Includes distribution of students by self-reported racial/ethnic categories (Second Semester 1976-). "Trends in Admissions and Enrollments" (1972, 1973) includes comparison of minority group students by campus and minority group (1967, 1970, 1971, 1972).
Special Educational Opportunities Program Brochure, 1970. Record Series 25/7/817.
Includes information on admissions, financial aid, academic life, and social life.
Illinois Alumni News, 1922-91. Record Series 26/2/801.
Includes articles on Afro-American Culture (1969), Black Culture Center (1969), Black students (1971), Black Students Association (1969), and Black student enrollment (1970). Indexed for 1922-73.
Alumni Morgue, 1882-. Record Series 26/4/1.
Includes obituary, clippings, biographical information, Alumni Association records, and other information on deceased black alumni and faculty. Folders arranged alphabetically by name.
Alumni File, 1920-. Record Series 26/4/2.
Includes Alumni Association records, biographical information, clippings, and other information on living black alumni and faculty. Folders arranged alphabetically by name.
Alumni News Clippings, 1957-. Record Series 26/4/4.
Includes newspaper clippings on black alumni and faculty. Folders arranged alphabetically by name.
Stewart S. Howe Collection, 1923-. Record Series 26/20/30.
Includes information on black fraternities and sororities.
Edwin B. Peebles Papers, 1854-1976. Record Series 35/2/50.
Includes a diary of the Peebles family in Mooresville, Alabama (1954-57, 1864-65) relating to plantations, slavery, and the Civil War.
Irene M. Gaines Papers, 1913-70. Record Series 35/2/52.
Papers of Irene M. Gaines (1896-1964) and Harris B. Gaines (1890-1964) includes correspondence, publications (1938-73), programs (1928-31, 1951-72), photographs (1938-70), and organizational records relating to social welfare, civil rights, and black history. Organizations include the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (1933, 1938, 1949-70), National Association of Colored Women (1933, 1939-60), Chicago Urban League (1940-70), American Negro Emancipation Centennial Authority (1960-62) and others.
Descriptive Inventory of Resources, 1965-67. Record Series 35/3/18.
Includes "Census of Black Families in Champaign-Urbana" (a study for the Office of the Chancellor prepared by Matilda Frankel, Survey Research Laboratory, 1968); "The University of Illinois and the Drive for Negro Equality, 1945-1951" (a course paper for History 461 by Cathie Huntoon, 1966); and "Poverty in Champaign County: A Case Study of a Minority Group" by Richard A. Schwarzlose, Office of Community Development (1965).
Archives Alumni Oral History Project Files, 2000- . Record Series 35/3/49.
Includes oral history interview tapes and transcripts conducted by archives staff with University of Illinois alumni who graduated in 1927-1939. Each interview includes discussion of diversity of the student body and discrimination issues. Interviews with African American students, Erma Scott Bridgewater '37 and Albert C. Spurlock BS '38, MS '39 are included
Black Alumni and Ex-Students Project File, 1967-73. Record Series 35/3/50.
Includes data sheets for black students showing name, birthdate, deathdate, birthplace, dates of attendance at the University, student activities, degrees received, marriage date and location, names of spouse and children, employment and residence record including dates, location and position, honors, awards and recognitions and the source where the information was found. The data was compiled by the University Archive staff with financial assistance from the Afro-American Cultural Center.
Physical Plant Director's Office Subject File, 1913-76. Record Series 37/1/1.
Includes information and documentation on Affirmative Action policies and compliances in employment and apprenticeships (1970-75) and correspondence and other documentation concerning discrimination policies and compliance with the Office of Equal Employment Opportunity for Construction (1970-73).
Campus Unrest File, 1968-72. Record Series 37/4/9.
Includes clippings from the Daily Illini and other publications relating to racism, demonstrations, boycotts, rallies, and strikes.
Housing Historical File, 1939-80. Record Series 37/6/10.
Includes information on non-discrimination practices in housing (1964-68).
Public Affairs Director's Office Subject File, 1919-84. Record Series 39/1/1.
Includes information on Affirmative Action (1969-70) and Afro-American Studies and Culture (1969-70, 1976).
University Press Releases, 1935- . Record Series 39/1/10.
Includes press releases on Afro-American and minority topics. A subject index to the press releases is available in the Archives. Examples of subject headings include: Affirmative Action; African-Americans; African Students Organization; Afro-American Academic Programs; Afro-American Cultural Program; Afro-American Cultural Program Center and Lecture Series; Afro-American Culture Programs; Afro-American Life and History; Afro-American Studies; Afro-American Studies Commission; Afro-American Studies and Research Program; Black Alumni; Black Alumni Association; Black American Writers; Black Chorus; Black Colleges and Universities; Black Concerns in Higher Education; Black Culture; Black Doctoral Recipients; Black Engineering Student Association; Black Engineering Students; Black Families; Black Greek Council; Black History; Black History Month; Black Mom's Day; Black Student Union; Black Students; Black Studies; Black Writer's Workshop; Civil Rights; Coalition of African People; Disadvantages People; Educational Opportunities for Minorities; Educational Opportunities Program; Employment, Minority; Equal Opportunity; Minority Education Program; Minority Engineering Program; Minority Faculty Seminar; Minority Introduction to Engineering; Minority Pre-Law Conference; Minority Programs; Minority Student Affairs; Minority Student Awards; Minority Students; Minority Students in Research; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; Racial Discrimination.
Photographic File, 1868- . Record Series 39/2/20.
Includes photographs of Afro-American students and Afro-American student organizations.
Dean of Students Correspondence File, 1943-66. Record Series 41/1/1.
Includes information on interracial relations (1946-47), discrimination by barbershops (1953-54), M.I.T. National Conference on Selectivity and Discrimination (1954-55), discrimination in rooming houses (1955-56), and discrimination (1961-62).
Fred H. Turner Papers, 1918-75. Record Series 41/1/20.
Includes student organizations discrimination letters (1965) and correspondence with W. Thomas Morgan about the Watts riots (1966-67). Turner was Assistant Dean (1922-31), Dean of Men (1931-43), and Dean of Students (1943-66).
IRAC Bulletin Editor's File, 1953-67. Record Series 41/1/41.
Includes information on fraternity and sorority discrimination practices.
Dean of Men Correspondence, 1912-70. Record Series 41/2/1.
Includes information about "colored students" (1914-17), Affirmative Action (1973-80), Educational Opportunity Programs (1973-80), and minority students (1973-80).
David Eisenman Papers, 1965-74. Record Series 41/2/25.
Includes meeting notes, correspondence, newspaper clippings, organizational broadsides of the Black Student Association and the Citizens for Racial Justice, and audio recordings, relating to the Special Educational Opportunities Program (SEOP-Project 500) and especially the September 9-10, 1968 disturbances at the Illini Union, assessments of how the crisis unfolded, how students were being handled by the disciplinary system, university-community relations and how the incident was covered in newspapers, especially the "Chicago Tribune," as well as the academic and magazine analyses of SEOP and the incident.
Panhellenic Files, 1927-70. Record Series 41/2/63.
Includes information concerning discrimination and sororities (1949-61, 1968-69).
Panhellenic Organizations File, 1942-69. Record Series 41/62/82.
Includes membership forms and other information on Alpha Kappa Alpha and Delta Sigma Theta.
Student Organizations & Activities Assistant Dean's Correspondence, 1919-66. Record Series 41/2/5.
Includes information about Kappa Alpha Psi (1921-22), Afro-American Culture Program (1976), Afro-American Cultural Center (1977-81), and the Black Greek-Letter Association (1976-81).
Men's Independent Association Subject File, 1964-77. Record Series 41/2/11.
Includes references to problems of black students and research on housing, age, home, and marital status of black students at Illinois (1965-67).
Educational Opportunities Program File, 1964-77. Record Series 41/2/14.
Includes correspondence, memoranda, communiques, and reports of the Special Educational Opportunity Program (SEOP) that was established to deal with problems of minority students, including housing, social, financial, and educational problems. SEOP involved the cooperation of other departments through tuition grants and organizing special classes for minority students. It also included activities organized by minority students, conferences, meetings, and seminars conducted at the local and national levels.
Fraternity Affairs Subject File, 1956-59, 1962-74. Record Series 41/2/76.
Includes information on Kappa Alpha Psi fire (1971), Black Greek-Letter Association (1971), discrimination in fraternities (1968), discrimination check-lists, and Omega Psi Phi (1948-57).
Daniel J. Perrino Papers, 1966-77. Record Series 41/2/22.
Includes Afro-American Culture Program Annual Report (1975-76). Perrino was Dean of Student Programs and Services (1968-76).
Dean of Students Subject File, 1963-79. Record Series 41/2/30.
Includes information on black students and the Afro-American Cultural Center.
Dean of Students Administrative Subject File, 1943-88. Record Series 41/2/31.
Includes information on minority issues.
Upward Bound Project File, 1966-77. Record Series 41/2/34.
Includes correspondence and reports relating to the preparation of disadvantaged secondary school students for college work; Bridge students summer courses programs (1970-74); budgets (1969-76); counseling materials (1970); project director's meetings (1970-72); field trips and visits to universities (1969-74); grant proposals (1965-68, 1970, 1974); parents clubs and advisory boards (1969-75); staff prospects and files (1968-77); student rosters and directories (1966-77); tests; TRIP program (1972-77); Champaign, Urbana, and Danville high schools (1969-77); volunteer support (1970-71); and U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare support (1971-73).
Student Organization Constitutions and Registration Cards, 1909-81. Record Series 41/2/41.
Includes Office of Registered Student Organizations registration forms and some constitutions for black student organizations.
SORF Fund Requests and Ledgers, 1978-83. Record Series 41/2/42.
Includes Student Organization Registration Fee fund applications and allocations for black student organizations.
Clyde S. Johnson Fraternity Collection, 1931-70. Record Series 41/2/50.
Includes information on fraternity autonomy and racial discrimination, and correspondence with Kappa Alpha Psi.
Wilson Heller Papers, 1937-83. Record Series 41/2/52.
Includes newspaper clippings and other information on black fraternities and sororities (1978-83).
Educational Opportunities Program Publications, 1975- . Record Series 41/2/804.
Includes a newsletter containing information on courses and careers for minority students.
Dean of Women Subject File, 1909-75. Record Series 41/3/1.
Includes information on black students, Delta Sigma Theta, discrimination, and Sigma Gamma Rho.
Student Organizations Publications, 1871- . Record Series 41/6/840.
Includes printed documents, promotional brochures, bulletin board announcements, and related issuances on black student organizations.
Career Development and Placement Office Brochures and General Announcements, 1932-87. Record Series 41/8/801.
Includes career planning and development aids for minority students (1978).
Daily Illini Student Newspaper, 1874- . Record Series 41/8/801.
Includes campus and national news concerning issues and events relative to Afro-American student life.
Illio Yearbooks, 1895- . Record Series 41/8/805.
Includes photographs of Afro-American students and Afro-American student organizations.
Afro-American Culture Lecture File, 1968-71. Record Series 41/12/88.
Includes budget material, lecture proposals, newspaper clippings, guest speaker correspondence, publicity posters, and course materials for Afro-American history and culture.
Minority Students Publications, 1990- . Record Series 41/12/801.
Includes a descriptive brochure; Campus Colors, a minority student handbook; and The Spectrum, a student newsletter.
Afro-American Cultural Program Publications, 1969- . Record Series 41/12/818.
Includes program announcements, notices of events, "Griot" newsletter (1982-), and related materials.
Albert C. Spurlock Papers, 1936-45, 1994, 2001. Record Series 41/20/137.
Includes photographs and news articles concerning college friends and Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity (1930's), a 1936 track varsity letterman's sweater, photographs of campus scenes (1930s), correspondence concerning Spurlock's service in WWII (1942) and a 1994 alumni event program. Mr. Spurlock was one of two African American alumni to participate in the Archives' Alumni Oral History Project (see Record Series 35/3/49).
Student Senate Files, 1948-68. Record Series 41/62/12.
Includes correspondence, minutes, reports, and other material on the Student Senate Subcommittee on Discrimination, which primarily concerns discrimination in student organizations.
41/66/21Champaign-Urbana Coalition Against Aparthied Records, 1964-91. Record Series 41/66/21.
Includes articles, correspondence, newsletters, posters, publications, and reports of American Committee on Africa (1983-89), Divest Now Coalition (1979-86), United Nations Center Against Aparthied (1977-84), and regarding aparthied, anti-aparthied organizations, boycotts, corporate and university divestment, human rights, labor unions, Mozambique, Namibia, and women.
Black Student Association Publications, 1967- . Record Series 41/66/826.
Includes Drums (1967-69), The Black Rap (1969-71), Yombo (1971-74), and Iripodun yearbook, containing feature articles, editorials, poetry, book reviews, photographs, and advertisements about racism, black events, education and employment opportunities, and white society.
YWCA Subject File, 1906-82. Record Series 41/69/331.
Includes information on black women and racism.
National Panhellenic Conference Archives Fraternity Affairs File, 1941-91. Record Series 41/82/9.
Includes information on Alpha Kappa Alpha and Sigma Gamma Rho.
Ernest H. Scott Papers, 1916-20. Record Series 43/1/26.
Includes correspondence, programs, sheet music, and newspaper clippings pertaining to Scott's activities as choir director of Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church, a black congregation. Also includes correspondence with Scott's family members including his sister in St. Louis and orders of household supplies and food. Scott was stenographer (1906-21) for Stephen A. Forbes, State Entomologist and and Chief of Office of the National History Survey.


Table of Contents



Student Organization Records
The following list is representative of African-American student organizations at the University of Illinois. Information about these and other student organizations may be found in the Archives' files of student organization publications (Record Series 41/6/840) and Registered Student Organization forms (Record Series 41/2/41).

Afro-American History Club (1976)
Alpha Kappa Alpha (1914)
Alpha Phi Alpha (1917)
Beautiful and Together Sisters (B.A.T.S.)
Black Accounting Association (1977)
Black Alumni Homecoming Committee (1979)
Black Architectural Students Association (1970)
Black Artists with Related Talents (1979)
Black Business Student Association (1976)
Black Chorus (1970)
Black Council (1972)
Black Engineering Student Association (1972)
Black Genesis Social Club (1973)
Black Graduate Social Workers (1973)
Black Graduate Committee (1970)
Black Graduate Student Association (1972)
Black Greek-Letter Association
Black Law Students Association (1975)
Black Pre-Law Club (1970)
Black Rage (1972)
Black Student Committee/Government (Penn. Ave. Residence) (1973)
Black Student Congratulatory Commission
Black Student Psychological Association (1978)
Black Student Union (1975)
Black Students' Association (1967)
Black Students for Muhammed (1972)
Black Students in the College of Commerce (1971)
Black Theatre Student Association (1972)
Black Undergraduate Business Students Association (1976)
Black Urban Planning Student Association (1973)
Cenacle
Central Black Student Union
Citizens for Racial Justice
Coalition Against Aparthied
Coalition of African People (1976)
Committee for Clear Thinking About Student Activism - Community Interracial Committee
Committee to Sponsor Angela Davis (1975)
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE; formerly NAACP) (1957)
Eusa Nin (1976)
Ewezo
Hopkins Black Student Organization (1974)
Illinois Street Residence - Black Student Union (1974)
Interracial
Kappa Alpha Psi
Mariama
Minority Accounting Association
Minority Organization for Pre-Health Students (1977)
National Association for Advancement of Colored People (1958)
Omega Psi Phi
Salongo
South African Graduate Students
Student Committee on Discrimination and Academic Freedom (1953)
Students Against Racism
United Blacks of Forbes Hall (1974)
University Black Women's Committee


Table of Contents



Materials in American Library Association Archives
The University Archives administers the American Library Association Archives, which contains sources concerning African-American topics. The ALA Archives has been arranged in record groups representing the organizational structure of the Association. The record series numbers below are ALA Archives numbers, not University Archives.

Illinois Minorities Manpower Project File, 1972-76. Record Series 9/1/41.
Specially funded project for recruiting minorities into librarianship. Includes correspondence, reports, minutes, and other documents about the administrative board, budget, evaluations, internships, and students at Rosary College.
Affirmative Action Institute Records, 1974-75. Record Series 9/1/42.
The Affirmative Action Institute, funded by HEA II-B funds, provided instruction about concepts of affirmative action to participants from 20 libraries so they could design and write affirmative action plans for their libraries. Includes information on planning, original proposal, budget, evaluation report, participants, participants' affirmative action plans, and final report.
Library Personnel Resources Director of Recruitment Correspondence & Subject File, 1958-79. Record Series 9/2/6.
Includes references to minority recruitment programs (1971-73) and affirmative action (1970-76)
Library Personnel Resources Advisory Committee Minutes, 1975, 1977. Record Series 9/3/1.
Includes reports by the Equal Employment Opportunity Subcommittee, Minority Recruitment Subcommittee, and Illinois Minority Manpower Project.
Library Personnel Resources Equal Employment Opportunity Subcommittee Minutes, 1975. Record Series 9/3/21.
Includes information on equal employment opportunities in librarianship, the Affirmative Action Institute, and the Ethnic and Sexual Composition/Salary Survey.
Library Outreach Services Executive Secretary Subject File, 1964-95. Record Series 10/2/6.
Includes material on the Social Responsibilities Round Table (SRRT) Coretta Scott King Award (1976-86), Minority Concerns Committee (1979-90), minority librarians (1986), Minority Librarian Fellowship Project (1986, 1989), SRRT Affirmative Action Resolution (1989-90), and Martin Luther King, Jr. Federal Holiday Commission (1990).
Public Relations Office Scrapbooks, 1948-77. Record Series 12/1/18.
Includes newspaper clippings on racial discrimination.
American Libraries Association Bulletin Editor's Correspondence, 1939-58, 1963-73. Record Series 13/5/5.
Includes references to Black Caucus (1970-71).
Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) Correspondence & Subject File, 1930-2002. Record Series 22/2/6.
Includes correspondence, applications, and reports relating to Mellon-ACRL Internship Project (1974-81) to develop managerial abilities of librarians in Black colleges and universities.
Mellon-Association of College and Research Libraries Internship Project Files, 1973-78. Record Series 22/2/77.
Files of Casper L. Jordan, who directed project to develop management skills of librarians in Black colleges and universities by providing internships in administration of academic libraries. Includes correspondence, applications, and reports concerning the Advisory Committee, the principal investigator Beverly P. Lynch, interns, host institutions, annual evaluations and orientation workshops held at Atlanta University (1974-77), and four-year evaluation meeting in Chicago (1978). Interns submitted regular reports on activities and evaluation of their work experience.
Library Education Division Subject Files, 1934-78. Record Series 28/2/6.
Includes references to negro students (1943-63) and Committee on Opportunities for Negro Students (1966-68).
Audiovisual Materials, 1954-55, 1970-72. Record Series 30/3/13.
Includes tape of History Section panel discussion of "Black History in Libraries" by Marjorie Bradfield at 89th annual ALA conference in Detroit (July 1, 1970).
Young Adult Library Services Association Subject File, 1953-97. Record Series 32/2/6.
Includes material of Committee on Library Services for Disadvantaged Youth (1963-71).
Social Responsibilities Round Table Action Council Correspondence, 1968-99. Record Series 49/1/5.
Includes material on Task Force on Minority Group Literature (1969), Task Force on Recruitment of Minorities (1969-70), racism (1976-78), Angela Davis (1971-72), Black Caucus (1971-72), racism at Library of Congress (1971), Coretta Scott King Award Task Force (1978-82, 1987-89), and Civil Rights Task Force (1987-91).
Black Caucus Newsletter, 1973-88. Record Series 56/40/10.
Quarterly publication providing news on the American Library Association Black Caucus proceedings and the activities and concerns of African-American librarians.
Elizabeth Morrissett Papers, 1976-89. Record Series 97/1/38.
Includes correspondence with Council on Interracial Books for Children and information on controversy over "Resolution on Racism and Sexism Awareness (1976-77).
Sanford Berman Papers, 1968-2007. Record Series 97/1/40.
Includes correspondence, publications, presentations, and other material on Black Americans for African Libraries (1969), Council on Interracial Books for Children (1969-86), Institute on Race Relations (1972-74), prejudicial Library of Congress subject headings, and African-American librarians. Berman was Social Responsibilities Round Table coordinator (1973-75), Minnesota affiliate member (1991- ), and head cataloger at Hennepin County, Minnesota Library (1973- ).

No

CHAMPAIGN COUNTY, APPROXIMATELY one and a half hours south of Chicago and located in central Illinois, remained a predominantly rural area surrounded by smaller towns and dominated by independent farming until the mid-twentieth century. Though located above the Mason-Dixon line, the county resembled southern states in its attitude toward and treatment of African-American residents. As the black population in the county grew during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the white population became concerned. Emancipation, the new railroad, and the defense industry attracted African Americans to the area, with the largest increases occurring after the Civil War, World War I, and World War II. Not all white residents opposed such migration, but racist sentiment was far from latent. For instance, large Ku Klux Klan meetings took place throughout the county and included a mass rally at a park in Urbana in 1924. County residents did not wholly endorse Klan sentiment and hostility, but the twin cities of Champaign and Urbana established firm patterns of educational and residential segregation early in the twentieth century. In the 1930s a combination of federal housing programs, restrictive covenants, and banks' lending policies led to the creation of all-black areas and a dual housing market in Champaign and Urbana. Residential segregation patterns created educational segregation patterns, and most black students in Champaign attended all-black or predominantly black elementary schools throughout much of the twentieth century. By the late 1960s blacks still had higher rates of deteriorated housing, unemployment, and infant mortality and had a median family income almost half that of whites.

The University of Illinois was established and evolved in this context. Chartered in 1867 and made possible by the Morrill Acts, Illinois Industrial University, as it was then called, began developing a curriculum emphasizing agricultural training, mechanical arts, and military tactics. The student body included 50 white males who were taught by a faculty of three. Three years later the university's board of trustees voted to admit women. The draft bill for the university in 1863 explicitly provided for the enrollment of any white Illinois resident, though the final charter did not include such language because it would have been inconsistent with the recent Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment. However, an African-American student did not enroll in the university until 20 years later. In 1887 the institution, now calling itself the University of Illinois, admitted its first African-American student, Jonathan Rogan. He remained only one year, and it was not until 1894 that another African-American student, another man, enrolled. The first African-American man would not graduate from the university until 1900; the first African-American woman graduated in 1906. African-American undergraduate enrollment slowly climbed throughout the first part of the twentieth century. Their numbers rose from 2 in 1900, to 68 in 1925, 138 in 1929, and 148 in 1944. Though their numbers multiplied, never did they amount to more than 1 percent of the student population.

African-American students at Illinois experienced discrimination on and off campus. Perhaps emboldened by legal victories in the South and the more aggressive mood of black liberation efforts, some black students involved themselves in protest. In 1946 the university's board of trustees reaffirmed its policy to "favor and strengthen those attitudes and social philosophies which are necessary to create a community atmosphere in which race prejudice can not thrive." But discrimination continued. On campus, housing became a flash point. In the first half of the twentieth century only two women's dormitories existed. Not until 1945 did African-American women receive space in the dormitories and only after a very public campaign by concerned African Americans in Chicago, home for most African-American students. Charles J. Jenkins, an African-American state representative, mounted a personal campaign to open the residence halls to African-American women by petitioning the university, meeting with the university president Arthur Cutts Willard, and soliciting possible candidates for application to the dormitories. The Illinois Association of Colored Women's Clubs also became very active in the desegregation campaign. In the tradition of the black press, the Daily Defender, the African-American Chicago newspaper, held university administrators' feet to the fire by publicizing the dormitory situation and chastising the university. The newspaper deliberately used buzzwords for racism and discrimination in an article entitled "Just Like Dixie: No U of I Dorms for Negroes," pointing out that "Jim Crow has crowded Negro girl students completely off the University of Illinois campus." President Willard, mildly receptive to the pressure, promised Representative Jenkins and the Colored Women's Clubs he would ask the director of the Division of Student Housing "to hold space for two girls for the time being, because I want the group which is interested in the situation to feel that the University is being absolutely fair." In August 1945 the acting director of housing alerted the president that two African-American women, Quintella King and Ruthe Cashe, had accepted their dormitory contracts for the 1945-46 academic year. Other African-American women would follow, but all were assigned rooms together -- the university desegregated the dormitories by allowing African-American women to reside there, but African-American and white women were not allowed to room together. The Housing Division averted accidents by soliciting race and national origin information on the dormitory applications.

Discriminatory practices by local landlords and restrictive covenants in real estate further limited housing options. Many African-American students lived in African-American fraternity or sorority houses; of the five African-American Greek organizations on campus in the 1940s three maintained houses and one maintained a suite of rooms. Other African-American students lived with local African-American families. This took a toll on students. African-American community residents lived in a segregated part of Champaign, called the North End, quite a distance from campus. Traveling to and from campus by foot meant lost time for study and recreation, while white students could take advantage of both. The university itself recognized the housing problems African-American students faced. In a 1935 report, the university lamented the fact that African-American students not living in fraternity or sorority houses had to walk a long distance to attend classes and participate in campus life. However, the report was quick to explain that living conditions had improved since the early part of the century -- a claim disputed by African-American students and Champaign residents.

In addition to the discriminatory housing situation, African-American students faced overt and covert discrimination on campus. In the early part of the twentieth century white students sponsored a Hobo Parade during Homecoming, where students would dress as indigent people. Students made picture postcards of the hobos in blackface and imitated other minority groups, such as Jews and the Irish. In the mid-1930s rumors flew that certain professors refused to give African-American students a grade higher than C. The university kept African-American men off the basketball team out of courtesy to "a Big Ten understanding," while the football coaches and team created a hostile enough environment to deter African-American males. Similarly, the university refused African-American male enrollment in advanced military courses. Documents suggest white women's organizations -- except sororities -- were slightly more open to African-American female participation. For instance, the Women's League, a social and service club, invited African-American women to its teas. However, many white student groups excluded African-American men and women either through clauses in their constitutions or by more subtle tactics.

Regardless, African-American students made themselves a part of the campus and took advantage of university life to the best of their ability. A few participated in established university organizations, including Glee Club, literary societies, and the student newspaper, the Daily Illini. Others created organizations parallel to those established by the university or white student groups. Reflective of the black cultural renaissance sweeping the nation in the early twentieth century, several African American-sponsored organizations used the African-American cultural heritage as a basis for their existence and mission. Like their contemporaries, W.E.B. Du Bois and Carter G. Woodson, they brought increasing race sentiment to the college campus. African-American fraternities and sororities and local churches provided most of their social activities. In the early 1930s African-American students formed Cenacle, an honorary society for African-American students that sponsored plays with African-American student actors and a book exhibit in the university library featuring African-American authors. In 1938 black students published the Scribbler, "the official voice of the Negro students enrolled in the University of Illinois," and discussed segregation in Champaign, the debate over voluntary segregation, as well as lighter subjects. In the early 1950s students celebrated Negro History Week, founded by Carter G. Woodson in 1926, with invited speakers, movies, and plays. In this way, African-American students created social and extracurricular outlets for their artistic interests, social welfare, and racial consciousness. Like African Americans in general, African-American students at the University of Illinois demanded to be seen and heard.

Off campus, African Americans encountered discriminatory treatment in barbershops, theaters, and restaurants. Since most local eating establishments practiced segregation, African-American students had to return to their host family's home or their fraternity or sorority houses for meals. Other arrangements -- though questionable in what they meant for relations between African-American students and white students -- existed. For instance, Lucy Gray, an African-American house manager at a white fraternity, Alpha Chi, hired an exclusively African-American male staff to alleviate their meal problems. They were allowed to eat the fraternity's leftovers as part of the payment for their services. Hence, they would not have to make the long walk to the North End for the evening meal and could remain on campus to study in the evening.

Local theaters asked African-American patrons to sit in a reserved section. Theaters went so far to keep the races separate that they asked white patrons sitting in the reserved section to relinquish their seats. One theater manager explained that it was not fair for whites to take seats reserved for colored people. If whites did, Negroes would have nowhere else to sit in the theater since most whites refused to be seated next to Negroes (hence the reserved section). White barbers in campus town refused to cut Negroes' hair, citing (wrongly) an Ohio law where those providing a personal service -- including haircuts -- could use discretion in offering their services. When found in noncompliance with Illinois law, barbers resorted to other tactics. Some reported they did not have the equipment necessary to cut Negroes' hair or that it was against union rules, others declared they would embarrass Negro customers to the point they would not wish to return, and a few even threatened physical harm. Evidencing the odd nature of discrimination and the relationship between African Americans and whites in America, barbershops proudly displayed pictures of J.C. Caroline, an African-American student and All-American football player, in their windows but refused him service.

Off-campus housing continued to be an issue in the early 1960s. In 1960 the university revised its Code of Fair Educational Practice to include a clause reaffirming the university's position on discrimination in housing: "The University will approve no new privately operated student rooming house unless the owner agrees to make its facilities available to all students without discrimination with respect to race or religion." By 1962, 51 percent of the rooming houses continued to operate on a discriminatory basis. Not until the mid-1960s were university efforts successful. Discrimination in seating African-American patrons in restaurants and theaters abated in the late 1950s, but discrimination in hiring African Americans in local establishments continued into the 1960s. The campus chapter of the NAACP made the Champaign hiring issue a priority and had the logistical aid of the national and Illinois NAACP branches and local community organizations. Urged on by national leadership and demonstrating sympathy for the civil rights movement in the South, the campus branch conducted a "freedom rally" in the early 1960s and picketed national chain stores discriminating in the South.

Attacking on-campus issues proved just as complex as attacking national issues. The university maintained policies of nondiscrimination, but the policies were not always translated into practice. For instance, the white Greek system at the university remained impenetrable for African Americans seeking to join fraternities and sororities. As of October 1959, no new student organization restricting membership on the basis of race or religion received university recognition, but existing fraternities and sororities proved another matter. Several white fraternities and sororities had restrictive clauses in their national constitutions. The university encouraged voluntary complicity with university nondiscriminatory policies and urged the Greek organizations to sign nondiscriminatory statements. Some did. Others refused on the basis of free association. The issue remained so pressing in the early 1960s that Harry Tiebout, a white faculty member who was the adviser for the campus NAACP chapter, informed the national leadership in 1961, "Our major on-campus project will be cracking the segregation pattern in fraternities and sororities. We have made extensive plans and expect to wage a vigorous struggle." Some in the university, including the Urbana chapter of the American Association of University Professors, fully supported the NAACP's efforts. Others, including President David Dodds Henry, qualified their support, citing the thorny issues involved.

The university closely monitored and controlled NAACP protests regarding fraternity and sorority exclusionary policies and other issues while the protesters were on university property. In 1961, amidst growing numbers of civil rights protests, the university issued regulations to all student groups regarding proper conduct. Protesters could not impede pedestrian, bicycle, or motor traffic, block entrances to buildings, harass passers-by, disturb classes by noise or picketing, or picket at the same time and place that an opposing group was picketing. If university functions were the target, students had to submit written notification 24 hours in advance. When worried about noncompliance, the university reminded the NAACP of proper conduct and even denied its petitions to protest. The university's in loco parentis ethos and attempts to keep politics out of higher education would be shattered before the end of the decade.

Despite university efforts to control protests, its often lukewarm commitment to racial equality, and intransigent local proprietors, desegregation efforts eventually were successful. Like black student initiatives on other white campuses in the North during the first half of the twentieth century, protests began as sporadic, individual events. By the late 1950s and early 1960s students began forming organizations for the explicit purpose of dismantling segregation. Student demands and tactics mirrored those of other increasingly aggressive and empowered African Americans in the wake of World War II, the Brown decision, and the burgeoning civil rights movement nationwide. Champaign-Urbana restaurants, theaters, and barbershops desegregated their facilities. African-American women and men moved into campus dormitories. The university refused to advertise off-campus housing of those landlords known to practice discrimination or acknowledge any student organization know to discriminate. Campus life began to open for African Americans interested in participation. Accordingly, African-American students slowly increased their involvement with established student organizations, though they continued to participate in and initiate their own organizations.

It is important to note, however, that black student thought regarding protest activity in the 1940s and 1950s was far from monolithic. A few students chose to agitate for change during their time on campus, while others refused to participate in the protests. Many avoided situations where they would encounter discrimination, could not comprehend why African-American students would put themselves in a position to encounter it, or reported being oblivious to discrimination on campus. Many focused their energies on academics rather than social issues. Overall, they were successful in their academic pursuit, particularly considering the tangible and psychological effects of discrimination, humiliation, and segregation they suffered on and off campus. Throughout the first half of the twentieth century African-American students at the University of Illinois maintained grade point averages and graduation rates comparable to those of whites. Their low numbers and intense pressure to conform to white mores precluded much organized protest in the first half of the century. But as their numbers grew and pressures to assimilate abated or were ignored, many black students began to view academic success and protest activity as inextricably linked on the path to black liberation. The targets and strategies of protest changed, but the mission remained the same -- creating a campus environment in which they would thrive and feel comfortable while at the same time using their talents to change the world around them.

No

Beak, Joel Ralph. "The Employability of the Champaign-Urbana, Illinois, Negro." MA Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1964.

Bial, Raymond. In All My Years: Portraits of Older Blacks in Champaign-Urbana. Champaign, IL: Champaign County Historical Museum, 1985. 8 pp. 55 plates.

Bindman, Aaron M. "Pre-College Preparation of Negro College Students." Journal of Negro Education. Fall 1966. (U of Illinois)

"CRJ Reports on the Incidents in the Union on September 9 [1968]." Laputa Gazette October 1968. Protest movement by Black Students Association at the U. of Illinois.

Campbell, Martha. "Greek System at U of I Separate, Not Equal." Chicago Defender, January 23, 1982.

Carpenter, John N. "The Illini Union Sit-in of September 9-10, 1968, and Why It Happened." Master's thesis, U. of Illinois, 1974.

Cobb-Roberts, Dierdre Lynn. "Race and Higher Education at the University of Illinois, 1945 to 1955." Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1998. 163 pp.

Collins, Erica Marcia. "Disparities in Juvenile Justice Processing of African-American Males in Champaign County, IL. 1998-1999." Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2000. 134 pp.

Cromwell, Janet Andrews. "History and Organization of the Negro Community in Champaign-Urbana, Illinois." MA Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1934. 111 pp.

Davis, Wendell M. Evaluation of the Urban League Education Initiative Project. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Dept. of Urban and Regional Planning, 1988. 33 pp. (Champaign, IL)

Everybody's Business 1994: A Classified Directory for the Greater Champaign-Urbana Area. Champaign, IL: Champaign Public Library, 1994. 39 pp.

Fitzgerald, Terrence D. White Prescriptions?: The Dangerous Social Potential for Ritalin and Other Psychotropic Drugs to Harm Black Boys. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2009. (Chapter 5 is entitled "Operational Control: Champaign, Illinois).

Franke, Carrie. "Injustice Sheltered: Race Relations at the University of Illinois and Champaign-Urbana, 1945-1962." Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign, 1990. 272 pp.

Patton, Carl Vernon. "Urban Renewal and Negro Envolvement: A Case Study of Negro Politics in Champaign, Illinois." Urbana, IL: [sn], 1968.

Knapp, Jean. "The University of Illinois and Its Negroes." The Green Caldron 15 (April 1946): 12-13.

McNicholas, Mick. "No Static at All-FM." Daily Illini, March 5, 1982. Detailed account of conflict between black students and WPGU-FM student station at the U of Illinois, Urbana.

McClendon, John H., ed. The State of Black Champaign County, 1984. Champaign, IL: Urban League of Champaign County, 1984. 79 pp.

Reed, David Brian. "The History of the Negro Athlete at the University of Illinois (1904-1969)." Urbana, IL: [sn], 1972.

Reilly, Joseph. "U. of I. Blacks. In Trying Times, A Time to Try." Chicago Sun-Times, March 16, 1969. Black students at U. of Illinois, Urbana.

Rhodes, Barbara. The Frances Nelson Health Center's School Aid Project: an Effective Approach to Problems of Black Exclusion from Public School. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Dept. of Urban and Regional Planning, 1975. 41 pp. (Champaign, IL)

"Riot in the Union? Law School Report. Conclusion of Fact." Laputa Gazette, January 9, 1969. Black Students Association protest at U. of Illinois.

Rouzan, Brisbane. "A History of Black Educational Leadership at the University of Illinois." Ph.D., U. of Illinois, 1975.

Scarich, Kathryn and Maureen Gilluly. The Black Community and Champaign-Urbana: an Inventory of Recorded Information. Urbana, IL: Library Research Center, University of Illinois, 1971. 50 pp.

Shelton, Albert. Melinda Roundtree Harold Hughes. Albert Shelton: a Transcription of an Oral Interview. Urbana, IL: Champaign County Historical Archives, 2000. 15 pp. (Transcription of an interview conducted June 21, 1984, at 1104 N. Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, Ill.)

Shulenburger, David Edwin. "Patterns of Negro Nonacademic Employment at the University of Illinois." Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1968.

Simon, Rita James, George McCall and Evelyn Rosenthal. "A Selective Evaluation of Their University by Negro and White Undergraduates." Phylon 30 (1st Qtr., 1969): 11-16. (U of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)

Slater, Robert Bruce. "The Progress of Black Students at the Flagship State Universities." Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (SPRING 1996): 71+. Includes info. on U of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Stack, Carol B. "The Kindred of Viola Jackson: Residence and Family Organization of an Urban Black American Family." In Whitten, Norman E., Jr., and John S. Szwed, eds. Afro-American Anthropology: Contemporary Perspectives. New York: Free Press, 1970. pp. 303-311. (Champaign, IL)

Stack, Carol B. and John R. Lombardi All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. 175 pp. (Champaign-Urbana, IL)

Through the Years: Black History in Champaign County. Champaign, IL: Champaign-Urbana Convention & Visitors Bureau, Spring 1995-1998.

Trumpeter, Margo C. The Black Community and Champaign-Urbana: a Preliminary Subject list. Urbana, IL: Library Research Center, University of Illinois, 1970. 37 pp.

"University of Illinois Action Group Fights Racial Discrimination on Campus and Off." Negro Digest (April 1951): 81-83.

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Institute of Government and Public Affairs. Report on Higher Education Public Service Responsibilities in the Black Community. Urbana, IL: The Institute, 1972. 211 pp.

Urban League of Champaign County. Urbana League of Champaign County, 25th Anniversary. Champaign, IL: The League, 1986. 23 pp.

Williamson, Joy Ann. Black Power on Campus: the University of Illinois, 1965-75. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003.

Williamson, Joy Ann. "We Hope for Nothing, We Demand Everything": Black Students at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign." Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1998. 230 pp.

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Anonymously

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